مجله مدیریت بیابان
پیاپی 25 (بهار 1402)

IntroductionGroundwater is the main source of fresh water in arid and semi-arid regions, making it resilient to the lack of precipitation. Previously, groundwater was considered an unlimited or, at a minimum, entirely renewable natural resource. However, in recent decades, primarily because of population growth and industrial development, it has been under irreparable pressure, which has resulted in groundwater depletion in most parts of the world, in particular in Iran. In addition to the mentioned factors, climatic events, climatic changes caused by global warming and drought sequences, geological and topographical characteristics are also effective at raising and lowering ground water levels. Several studies have been conducted to investigate factors affecting the depletion of aquifers. Studies such as the investigation of climatic factors and aquifer extraction on changes in the level of the Maharluo lake, changes in groundwater quantity and quality in Sistan and Balochistan and factors affecting the depletion of aquifer storage in Darab have shown that the human and climatic factors have been effective in depleting groundwater. Studies in China have stated that socio-economic and agricultural development, land use changes, and dam construction are the most important factors in depleting groundwater resources. The Minab Plain is one of the fertile areas of Hormozgan province, where excessive groundwater extraction has reduced groundwater levels in the area. This plain also plays an important part in the transfer of water between basins from Minab to Bandar Abbas, so that a large quantity of water is pumped and transferred daily. Therefore, it is important to study the variables that affect the depletion of groundwater reserves in this plain. Considerable research has been carried out in the Minab plain to investigate changes in hydroclimatic variables, land use and groundwater. However, no research was conducted on the effect of these factors on groundwater loss. The aim of this research is to analyze the trend of hydro-climatic variables and groundwater level, to investigate land use changes, to detect the trend of groundwater extraction, water transfer operations from Minab plain to Bandar Abbas and, to investigate its effects on depletion in the Minab plain. Material and MethodsThe study area in the present study is the Minab Plain which the Esteghlal Dam was built on this river in 1983, with a water intake volume of 250 MCM. The data used in the research including the groundwater level, precipitation, discharge, and temperature. The number of 47 piezometric or observation wells have measured water level variations in the Minab plain since 1986, and 20 rain gauge stations have been distributed around case studies, of which 10 active rain gauge stations, six evapotranspiration stations and four hydrometer stations are used with a long statistical period. In the current study, the Mann-Kendall non-parametric method was used to analyze the trend. The point change was determined by the Pettitt’s test. Landsat satellite time series images were used to extract land use classes. Considering the existing land uses in the region, five land uses were considered: agricultural, rock, rangeland, urban and waterbodies. The images were analyzed in three time periods of 1991, 2005 and 2021 using Landsat satellite images. Results and DiscussionThe results indicate that during the 1986-2020 statistical period, the average level of groundwater in the plain fell by 10.19 m. The calculated Mann-Kendall statistic is -6.69, indicating a significant negative trend and, according to the Pettitt test statistics, 2013 was reported as a time of change. With respect to the trend of hydroclimatic variables, temperature and evapotranspiration are increasing at all stations, while precipitation and flow are trending downward which is not statistically significant. In addition, at most stations, change points were from 2001. The results of the land use change survey showed that rangeland decreased by 22%, and irrigated agricultural land and urban land increased by 2.2 and 2.8 times, respectively. In investigating the effect of human factors on groundwater depletion levels, it showed that the number of wells increased from about 100 to 796 wells, 16 wells were drilled in this plain to provide drinking water to Bandar Abbas, and the inter-basin water transfer with a discharge flow of 1200 lit/s, started since 2002 has put double pressure on the storage. The other reason for groundwater depletion is the decrease in aquifer feeding because of the decrease in precipitation, increase in temperature and evaporation, and decrease in infiltration of water from the Minab River, especially after the operation of Esteghlal dam in 1984. The amount of aquifer feed due to runoff infiltration is 12/77 MCM, or 22% of the total aquifer feed. Finally, it can be concluded that natural factors, including a reduction in precipitation and runoff and an increase in temperature, and non-natural factors such as building dams, increasing the allocation of aquifers for agriculture, domestic and industrial purposes, inter-basin transfer water, the increase in agricultural land and residential areas led to a double pressure on groundwater storage in the Minab Plain, resulting in a marked depletion of groundwater levels in the Minab Plain.

IntroductionOver the past 60 years, the use of plastic covers as a tool to increase the harvest and increase the yield of horticultural crops has steadily increased worldwide. Plastic greenhouses have turned desert areas into areas with modern agricultural development, the province of Almera in the south of Spain is a good example. It now has many greenhouses, making it a global model of agricultural development; but greenhouses contain large quantities of phthalates and cause harm to people, like hormonal disturbances, heart problems, cancer, etc. However, plastic greenhouses are widely built to produce vegetables and fruits near cities. As a result, several remote sensing methods have been developed to identify and monitor the distribution of plastic covered greenhouses in order to manage water resources, identify sites and quantities of plastic greenhouses. Remote detection is the only practical method to monitor plastic greenhouses in a vast geographic area. In the past few years, there have been few studies using high spatial resolution images. In one study, three main absorption ranges were identified that are unaffected by dust, washing and surface factors. In Spain, an artificial intelligence neural network has been proposed to identify greenhouse using Quick Bird images with a resolution of 1.5m. Studies based on medium spatial resolution imagery were also conducted, resulting in different results. In search on land cover classification using Landsat TM images, no favorable results were found. Research has proposed a new method for mapping greenhouses using Sentinel-2 dual-time images and 1D-CNN deep learning. The aim of the current research is to identify the length of the cultivation period of greenhouse crops using Sentinel-2 satellite images. Researchers used a variety of satellite imagery to identify and classify greenhouses. The innovative objective of the current research is to evaluate the Sentinel-2 satellite images in determining the length of the cultivation period of greenhouse crops; which was done for the first time within the country. Material and MethodsIn the first step, the cultivated area of greenhouses was identified using an aerial photograph. Then, useful bands were extracted in greenhouse studies using Sentinel-2 time series images. Next, vegetation and plastic cover indices were calculated for the greenhouse growing period. 1) Identify and determine the area under cultivation in greenhouses: By comparing the pixel-based classification algorithms and the object-oriented classification algorithms, the cultivated area of greenhouses was identified. ENVI and eCognition software were used for pixel-based classification and object-oriented classification, respectively. It should be noted that only one aerial photograph with three bands, blue, green and red, has been used in object-oriented classification. In order to classify the base pixel, learning samples were selected using expert knowledge from the study area. In some instances, Google Earth was used as well. Learning samples were selected scattered across the image to improve accuracy. For validation of the maps obtained from these algorithms, ground control points were used. To reduce human error, these points were also entered into Google Earth. 2) Identifying functional bands in the greenhouse study: The spectral behavior curve of different earth surface covers in Blue, Green, Red, SWIR, NIR bands was drawn in an image of the Sentinel-2 satellite. These spectral signatures were compared on May 20, 2020 i.e., when outdoor vegetation and greenhouse cultivation were at their peak. 3) Determining the duration of the greenhouse growing season: Vegetation indices of the NDVI, SAVI, OSAVI, MSAVI, GNDVI, RVI, DVI, RGVI, IPVI and plastic cover indices PGI, RPGI, PI, PMLI were compared using Sentinel-2 satellite time series images. Results and DiscussionGreenhouse cultivation is used to improve quality and increase food production. However, their development has many negative effects on the environment. Therefore, obtaining accurate and timely information on the distribution of greenhouses and the time of planting and harvesting crops under plastic covers can make a significant contribution to agricultural management, water management and soil protection. The present study is the first study to identify the length of the greenhouse cultivation period using Sentinel-2 satellite time series images. The results showed that among the object-oriented classification algorithms, two classification algorithms, Bayes and KNN, were more precise for the identification and determination of the cultivated area of greenhouses. The reflection of the plant below the plastic cover of the greenhouse in the NIR, Narrow NIR, Red Edge and SWIR bands increases by an equal amount in comparison with the reflection from the vegetation in the open space. Comparing vegetation cover and greenhouse cover indices showed that the indices designed based on SWIR and Red bands showed greater reflection during the hot season of the year. Indices based on NIR, Narrow NIR, and Red Edge bands were more reflective from October to late February. Based on the results obtained from the ground truth data, greenhouses are plastered during the warm season. This caused an increase in the reflectance in indices designed based on SWIR and Red bands and a decrease in reflectance in indices designed based on NIR, Narrow NIR, Red Edge bands, during the hot season. Therefore, combining all indices, two crop periods were observed: the first started in early March, peak cover was reached in April, and harvest continued. Until the middle of August. The second harvest started at the end of August and peaked in December, until the end of harvest in mid-February.

IntroductionToday, one of the biggest challenges for mankind is the lack of water resources in the world. This is one of the limiting factors for agricultural development in Iran in recent years. Identifying and estimating reference evapotranspiration (ET0) can help make decisions to plan and mitigate the use of water resources and appropriate management methods in the country. Thus, one of the ways to reduce water losses in the fields is good irrigation planning, which is based on accurate estimation of the water requirements of plants and ET0. The aim of this research is to evaluate the ET0 changes using temperature and radiation methods, statistical tests such as Man-Kendall, Sen’s slope analysis in Iran over the last decades. Material and MethodsIn the current research, primary evaluation of data, such as sorting, etc., was conducted in the desired ET0 calculation format. For the classification of weather station climate, annual precipitation and temperature data from 1976 to 2020 were used. To estimate ET0, maximum temperature (°C), minimum temperature (°C), average relative humidity (%), wind speed (m/s), and sunshine hour (h) were used on a monthly time scale. The Koppen-Geiger climate classification method was used to classify the meteorological stations studied. For estimating monthly and annual ET0, the methods such as FAO Penman-Monteith (FAO PM), Hargreaves-Samani (H-S), and Priestley Taylor (PT) were used. Then, an attempt was made to introduce the appropriate model for each climate by using the results of ET0 estimation using RMSE and MAE. ET0 maps were produced with more accuracy based on the results of the RMSE. Among different geostatistical interpolation methods, the Kriging method worked better than the other methods, which was used as the superior interpolation method. The Mann-Kendall non-parametric test was used to detect the trend of time series. To examine the trend slope in the ET0 time series, the  non-parametric Sen's slope method was used. For qualitative analysis of the ET0 trend, the innovative ITA trend was used for all three methods on a yearly basis Results and DiscussionIn this research, the station climate classification results show that climate varieties in Iran are high and can be divided into seven different climates. According to the RMSE and MAE statistical evaluations, the H-S method in semi-desert climates, dry and cold steppe, dry desert, temperate with dry summers, very hot semi-desert and snowy climates; and PT method in dry desert climates, moderate with dry summers, semi-desert, and very hot semi-desert were recognized as superior methods. In the temperate and rainy climate zone of Bandar Anzali, the H-S, and in Rasht, the PT methods were evaluated as suitable methods. Based on the monthly ET0 estimation, the amount of ET0 is significantly reduced in the northwestern, western and northeastern regions during the winter season. In winter, ET0 decreases as a result of increased air moisture. In the spring season, the amount of ET0 declined in the northern latitudes. The onset of convective spring rains in the northern latitudes of the country is one of the reasons behind this reduction in ET0 in these areas. During the summer season, regions in the upper latitudes have a lower ET0 because of their lower temperature than southern latitudes. In the autumn, there is a lower ET0 in the northern latitudes than in the southern regions of the country. Trend analysis shows that with the exception of the Arak station with an ET0 downward trend in April, most ET0 time series have a positive trend in the rest of the stations. Sanandaj is the only station that has a downward trend in ET0 in November. An increasing trend is observed in most of the studied stations, but in some other stations such as Arak and Sanandaj, a downward trend in the Reference Evapotranspiration may be observed. Finally, the results of the Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) showed an upward trend in the amount of ET0 in both high and low areas in all seasons. This shows the increase of the long-term ET0 trend, indicating the increase in water requirements for plants in Iran. In the present study, climatic data from 40 stations from 1976 to 2020 were used to estimate ET0 in Iran. The Koppen- Geiger method was also used to classify the weather stations into the seven climates classes. The FAO PM, H-S, and PT models were used to estimate monthly and annually ET0. To choose the appropriate method of estimating ET0 in each climate zones; the H-S and PT methods were compared with the FAO PM method, and validated using RMSE and MAE statistics. Due to the involvement of various processes in ET0 changes, the best estimation method differs between stations. In this research, the H-S method was more compatible than the PT method at most of the stations.  Results have been presented as monthly and annual zoning maps. The zoning results of the three ET0 calculation methods mentioned showed that changes in climatic elements in different regions and periods have different effects on the ET0 value. The trend in ET0 changes using the Mann-Kendall test showed that the ET0 data at most stations have an increasing slope. Only two stations (Arak representing the top stations and Sanandaj representing the bottom station) have a decreasing slope. Based on the results of the ET0 time series analysis using ITA, the ET0 trend increased at all stations representative of the high and low elevation zones. Overall results show that TE0 has increased in most parts of the country, resulting in increased water requirements for plants. In the absence of effective management, Iran will face a serious water crisis in the future.

IntroductionHarsh ecological conditions, including water scarcity, have limited vegetation life in desert areas. Consequently, the cultivation of drought-resistant plants compatible with desert areas and their expansion, while creating suitable vegetation, increases biodiversity, controls desertification and is oriented towards the sustainability of desert ecosystems. Cannabis is a drought-tolerant plant which, because of its great genetic diversity, has the ability to grow in different climates, particularly in semi-desert areas. Appropriate agricultural management enhances the vegetation, production and productivity of agricultural products. In this context, it is important to study planting date and plant density as factors impacting production. Planting dates must be chosen to allow sufficient time for each stage of growth and development. The use of optimal plant density may improve plant growth and increase plant yield by reducing intra-plant competition. Results of search on two densities of cannabis plants of 8 and 16 plants per m-2 in Birjand, the highest seed yield was obtained from a density of 16 plants per m-2. Finding on densities of 50, 150, and 250 plants per m-2 in Mashhad, and 30, 90, and 150 plants per m-2 in Shirvan reported that as the density of cannabis plants increased, the flowering date decreased in both regions. Given the arid and semi-arid climate of South Khorasan, planting plants compatible with the climate of the region, such as cannabis, can increase vegetation cover while producing an acceptable yield. The objectives of the current research are to study the effect of agricultural management on the growth characteristics of the forgotten cannabis plant in semi-arid climate of Birjand. Material and MethodsThe current research was carried out in Center of Agriculture and Natural Resources Research if South Khorasan, located at 59′ 13° east longitude and 53° 32′north latitude, and 1491m above sea level. South Khorasan province has a desert and semi-desert climate. Before preparing the soil to determine the required amount of chemical and organic fertilizers, the soil in the field was analyzed. Data on temperature changes and the total number of sunny hours of various months during the cannabis growing period were received from the Birjand weather station. The experiment was conducted as a split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Treatments investigated included planting date on three levels of May 12, May 27 and June 11 as the main plot and plant density at three levels of 22.2, 11.1 and 7.4 plants per m-2 as the sub plot. In this research, the phenological characteristics including the number of days to emergency, days to flowering, days to seed filling, days to physiological maturity, length of vegetative period, length of reproductive period, length of flowering period, and morphological characteristics including plant height, number of main stem branches, stem diameter and seed yield were investigated. Statistical analysis of the data was done using SAS software and the comparison of averages was done based on Duncan's 5% multiple range test. Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the impact of planting date on all morphophenological traits was significant, with the exception of stem diameter. The delay in planting between May 12 and June 11 significantly reduced the length of phenological stages, and vegetative growth of cannabis, and ultimately caused a 48% decrease in seed yield. Late cultivation, due to the increase in temperature, the plant completes its vegetative growth faster. The delay in planting by shortening the period of effective growth, reducing the photosynthetic potential of the plant, and coinciding with the period of seed filling with low temperatures and shortening of the day has led to a decrease in the quantity and the filling speed of the seeds, and subsequently the yield of the seeds decreases. It has been reported that a 20-day delay in seeding from 10 May led to a 46% decrease in seed yield under climatic conditions in Azerbaijan. The effect of plant density on morphological traits, number of days until flowering of female plants, days until seed set, days until physiological maturity, length of vegetative period, length of flowering period and seed yield were significant. The increase in density from 7.4 to 22.2 plants per m-2, while delaying flowering, increased seed yield by 15.4%. Increased plant density due to higher plant height and increased number of plants per unit area increased seed yield. Results of search on two densities of cannabis plants of 8 and 16 plants per m-2 in Birjand, the highest seed yield was obtained from a density of 16 plants per m-2. To achieve proper yield performance, and develop cannabis cultivation- as a plant compatible with the semi-desert region- the planting date of May 12 and the density of 22.2 plants per m-2 can be used.

IntroductionRangeland provides numerous ecosystem goods and services. Most rangeland management decisions focus on forage production, and this can lead to the loss of other rangeland ecosystem services. One of those services is carbon sequestration, the removal of carbon dioxide from the Earth's atmosphere and its storage in the ground. Rangeland, which covers approximately half of terrestrial ecosystems, is one of the most important sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis, respiration and decomposition are the main processes in the ecosystem that determine how carbon is stored in the soil. Anthropogenic activities like livestock grazing can significantly alter soil carbon storage. Unfortunately, human activities have resulted in lower soil carbon and increased global climate change. Livestock grazing is one of the most significant factors affecting the structure and functioning of ecosystems. Grazing livestock can affect the amount of carbon in the soil through reduced vegetation cover, altered species composition, soil degradation, urination and defecation. On the other hand, changes in the quantity and quality of forage production by livestock grazing have a strong effect on the welfare of the beneficiaries. Consequently, knowledge of the relationship between forage production and other ecosystem goods and services such as soil carbon is essential to the sustainability of ecosystems. It is important to study the quantity and quality changes in rangeland production in relation to different livestock grazing intensities on soil carbon. However, this information can assist range managers in providing techniques to promote soil carbon storage. The purpose of the study is 1) to determine annual forage production in rangelands at different grazing intensities, 2) to study the quality of rangeland forages produced, 3) to assess soil carbon content at different grazing intensities, and 4) to assess the relationship between rangeland production and soil carbon content at different grazing intensities. Material and MethodsA rangeland adjacent to Khabr National Park in Kerman province was selected as the study area. The study area is shrub- dominated species Artemisia aucheri Boiss. Three sites with different grazing intensities (for example, exclosure, high grazing and moderate grazing) were sampled. At each site, three 100m transects with 50m intervals were set up. Ten quadrats were randomly assigned to each transect. For each quadrat, the species met were recorded and their number of individuals and the amount of forage produced were measured. The annual forage production (forage quantity) was measured using the clip and weigh method. To determine forage quality, crude protein, acid detergent fibre (ADF), dry matter digestion and metabolizable energy were estimated for each species. Additionally, a soil sample was taken from each of the quadrats. The samples were air-dried and sieved with a 2 mm sieve. The organic carbon of the soil samples was determined through wet oxidation with Walkley-Black chromic acid. Then, the species importance index (IVI) was estimated using relative frequency (Fr), relative density (Dr) and relative dominance (Dor). One-way ANOVA and LSD were used to compare different grazing intensities in terms of soil carbon, annual production, crude protein, ADF and metabolizable energy. Pearson's correlation was used to examine the relationship between soil carbon and annual production with the qualitative attributes of production, ie. The primary component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the most important species in terms of production at the three sites with different grazing intensities (exclosure, high grazing and moderate grazing). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to identify the most important species in terms of production at the three sites with differing grazing intensities (exclosure, high grazing and moderate grazing). Results and DiscussionThe quantity and quality of forage has been reduced in the livestock grazing sites. The study area has a long history of cattle grazing, which has significantly altered the composition of the vegetation. About 26% of the exclosure site species had been removed from the plant composition of medium pasture sites, most of which are appetizing species. Although the amount of organic carbon in the soil increased at the exclosure site, it was not significantly different from grazing sites. Therefore, despite the improvement in forage quality and quantity, soil organic carbon had shown a lower reaction to the exclosure. Due to the presence of acceptable species, there was a positive relationship between forage quantity and quality at the exclosure site. Although A. aucheri was still dominant shrub species in the site with medium grazing intensity, there was no significant relationship between forage quantity and quality due to the decrease of palatable species. With the increase in the number of non-platable species in the high grazing site, there was a significant negative relationship between forage quantity and quality. There was a positive and meaningful relationship between soil carbon and the amount and quality of forage at the exclos site. The relationship between soil carbon and forage quantity and quality was not significant on grazing sites because of a change in plant composition. In the sites under grazing, palatable forbs such as Tragopogon jesdianus Boiss. and Lathyrus annuus L. were not observed and perennial grasses were significantly reduced. It should be noted that forage production of forbs has not changed much on the site with average grazing compared to the exclosure site. Perennials, especially woody plants, were severely reduced at the site with high grazing intensity. There were no bushes observed at that location. Annual grasses had increased in the site with heavy browsing. As perennials decrease, space and resources become available for the invasion of annual plants, especially annual grasses. Therefore, Bromus tectorum L. had the highest forage production in the   high grazing area. In terms of crude protein, the high grazing area had low quality forage. Since livestock grazing and subsequent changes in plant composition do not greatly impact soil carbon, livestock management can contribute to the improvement of plant composition and forage production at this site. Taking into account the impact of grassland management on other ecosystem functions, it is suggested to explore the relationship between the amount of production and other functions of quality rangeland ecosystems in order to sustainably manage rangeland ecosystems.

IntroductionGroundwater is among the most precious natural resources for human health, economic development and environmental diversity. Since the measurement of groundwater parameters and water quality is difficult, costly and far from being available, interpolation techniques are an easy solution. At the same time, there is a strong correlation between groundwater quality and land use in areas with sensitive aquifers. Changes in land use caused by factors such as rapid growth and expansion of urban centers, rapid population growth, and the lack of land, the need for increased production and the evolution of technologies are important concerns. The literature review shows that the quantitative and qualitative decline in groundwater is a global crisis. As a result, the factors affecting the quantitative and qualitative decline in groundwater range from climate factors to socio-economic factors.In the current research, find an answer to the poor condition of the Isin Plain aquifer by looking at the relationship between some hydrological factors and changes in cultivation pattern of the region is the main goal. For this purpose, the water table and EC of groundwater were interpolated using geostatistical methods. Using satellite imagery, the trend of culture pattern changes over time was obtained. Finally, the relation between the factors on the Isin plain was established. Material and MethodsFor this purpose, the quantity and quality of groundwater in eastern and western Isin plains were interpolated using the Kriging and IDW methods, during the four statistical years of 2004, 2011, 2018, and 2021 and the time series of 2004-2021. The RMSE statistic was used to evaluate the performance of the methods.Then, satellite images and ground truth data was used for land use change classes to investigate the land use changes during the cropping season, along with the determination of changes in the quantity and quality of groundwater in the eastern and western Isin plains for the mentioned years. Satellite data including Landsat 5 multi-temporal satellite images in 2004, 2011, and 2018 and Landsat 8 and Sentinel 2 images for February 2021 were obtained from the USGS.Following preparation of the related images using the flash module, atmospheric and radiometric corrections were performed. Then, the corrections information was extracted into the text file appended to each image. With field survey, the coordinates of the representative pixels were determined and seven land use classes of gardens, vegetables, bare lands, residential and industrial areas, saline lands, and Prosopis Cineraria and Juliflora species were determined. The maximum likelihood classification method was used to separate seven main land use classes based on 127 training samples. For the purpose of assessing accuracy, an error matrix was created for the producer's accuracy, the user's accuracy, the overall accuracy, and the kappa coefficient calculation. Finally, to examine the relationship, the land use map and the groundwater and EC interpolation maps were overlapped into the Arc Map software environment. Results and DiscussionBy comparing the interpolation methods of IDW and Kriging with the RMSE validation technique, it was found that the best interpolation method for estimating water table and EC is Kriging, followed by the IDW method. A review of the land use maps of the Eastern and Western Plains of Isin showed the increase and decrease of different land use categories over the years under study. The overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were over 82% and 0.79, indicating the acceptable accuracy of the classification and maps obtained. The results of overlapping land use maps and spatial changes in ground water indicate that the location of agricultural land, especially gardens in the eastern Isin plain and vegetables in the western Isin plain, is compatible with the areas of having low water table. The results of overlapping the land use map obtained from Landsat 8 data and EC spatial changes showed the highest amount of EC in can be observed in Prosopis Cineraria and Juliflora species and residential and industrial uses in eastern and western Isin plain. The results obtained from Sentinel2 indicate that the value of EC was significant in the bare lands of eastern Isin and in the saline lands of western Isin. However, the increase in agricultural use, especially for gardens and vegetables, and the pairing with areas with the lowest water table indicates an over-extraction of groundwater for agricultural purposes. On the other hand, the significant extent of bare lands and the upward trend of saline lands, residential and industrial areas, and matching with areas with high EC and the adaptation of maximum EC with Prosopis Cineraria and Juliflora species uses may be a warning for poor condition of the Isin plain aquifer.